A weak or malfunctioning thyroid gland can have a devastating effect on the brain, moods, behavior, and quality of life!  "Thyroid disease has hit epidemic levels in United States over the last decade" (knowbalance.com).  "An estimated 20 million Americans have thyroid disorders, but more than half still remain undiagnosed. Approximately 1 out of every 8 women will develop a thyroid disorder in her lifetime.  Women are 5 to 8 times more likely than men to suffer from a thyroid condition.  The elderly are also more likely to suffer from hypothyroidism. By age 60, as many as 17 percent of women have an underactive thyroid. Five to 8 percent of women develop thyroid abnormalities post-partum" (Georgetown University Department of Medicine).   An understanding of the thyroid and its functions, causes of malfunctions, and the various methods of treatment and healing can be very helpful.  So let's see what some experts say about the thyroid.

About the thyroid
"The thyroid gland is part of the endocrine system and plays a key role in your overall health producing numerous hormones that orchestrate various bodily functions" (yourbodycanheal.com). "The thyroid gland is a small butterfly shaped gland, located in the front of the neck, below the larynx (voice box). The small, two-inch gland consists of two lobes, one on each side of the windpipe (trachea), connected by tissue called the isthmus. The thyroid tissue is made up of two types of cells: follicular cells and parafollicular cells. Most of the thyroid tissue consists of the follicular cells, which secrete iodine-containing hormones called thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The parafollicular cells (also called C cells) secrete the hormone calcitonin. The thyroid needs iodine to produce the hormones" (healthsystem.virginia.edu).

The thyroid works with other glands to perform a variety of functions. “Levels of hormones secreted by the thyroid are controlled by the pituitary gland's thyroid-stimulating hormone, which in turn is controlled by the hypothalamus" (healthsystem.virginia.edu).   "The anterior pituitary is crucial for proper thyroid function through the production and secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH secretion is positively regulated by a neurohormone known as thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus" (abbottdiagnostics.com).   "When the level of thyroid hormones (T3 & T4) drops too low, the pituitary gland produces ... (TSH) which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce more hormones. Under the influence of TSH, the thyroid will manufacture and secrete T3 and T4 thereby raising their blood levels. The pituitary senses this and responds by decreasing its TSH production" (endocrineweb.com).

"Dysfunction at this stage in the stimulatory cascade results in decreased TSH production and hence hypothyroidism, termed a tertiary thyroid disorder. While thyroid hormones T4 and T3 down-regulate TSH in a classic feedback inhibition scheme, TRH production is also inhibited (by) these thyroid hormones, albeit to a lesser degree, in the hypothalamus" (abbottdiagnostics.com). 

"What are the functions of the thyroid gland?

•  Iodine absorption - "The function of the thyroid gland is to take iodine found in many foods. …Thyroid cells are the only cells in the body which can absorb iodine“ (endocrineweb.com).

•   Thyroid hormone (TH) production and storage - The thyroid takes iodine, found in many foods such as kelp, and converts it into thyroid hormones, T4 and  T3. These cells combine iodine and the amino acid tyrosine to make T3 and T4. "The normal thyroid gland produces about 80% T4 and about 20% T3, however, T3 possesses about four times the hormone 'strength' as T4" (endocrineweb.com).  

•  Regulation of biochemical processes - "T3 and T4 are responsible for regulating diverse biochemical processes throughout the body which are essential for normal development and metabolic and neural activity" (abbottdiagnostics.com). 

•  Biosynthesis of enzymes - "Thyroid’s actions in the cell is to increase the biosynthesis of enzymes, resulting in heat production, oxygen consumption, and elevated metabolic rate" (infertilityworkshop.com).

•   Control metabolism –  Thyroid hormones help the body to convert food into energy and heat. T3 and T4 are "released into the blood stream and are transported throughout the body where they control metabolism (conversion of oxygen and calories to energy). Every cell in the body depends upon thyroid hormones for regulation of their metabolism" (endocrineweb.com).

•  Protein synthesis - "T3 triggers rapid protein synthesis and influences mitochondrial gene transcription, the reading of genes and synthesis of proteins from genetic information. These activities cause breakdown of proteins" (Phillips).

•   Energy production -  "These hormones control the rate at which cells burn fuels from food to produce energy" (kidshealth.org).   TH stimulates the oxidation of fatty acids into energy. 

•  Cholesterol reduction - "Increased T3 will immediately increase the conversion of cholesterol to progesterone and bile acids" (Raymond Peat, PhD, 2010).

•  Regulation of free fatty acids - "Thyroid stimulates the release of free fatty acids from adipose (fat) tissue" (infertilityworkshop.com).

•  Increase oxygen use. "TH elevates the heart rate to meet the increased oxygen needs" (Phillips).

•   Temperature regulation - "TSH, which stimulates the thyroid to produce TH, also stimulates brown adipose tissue, a mitochondria-rich tissue, to boost heat production in mammals without muscle activity. TH fluctuates in response to caloric intake and external temperature" (Phillips).

•  Bone growth - "Thyroid hormones also play a key role in bone growth" (kidshealth.org).  The thyroid produces calcitonin which works with parathyroid hormones to regulate the level of calcium in the blood.

•  Brain and nervous system development

•  Female reproductive system regulation

 What is thyroid disease?
Thyroid disease is where the thyroid does not produce the right hormones in the right balance. There are a variety thyroid disorders:

* Hyperactive thyroid disorders (where the thyroid overproduces its hormones) include Grave's Disease and Thyroid Storm. "These excess hormones affect many organ systems and cause varying degrees of a spectrum of illnesses" (Craig A Manifold, DO).

•    "Graves disease (diffuse toxic goiter) is the most common form of overt hyperthyroidism and has a suspected immunologic etiology. Besides      hyperthyroidism, the disease is characterized by one or more of the following:

• Goiter (swelling of the thyroid gland)
• Exophthalmos (abnormal protrusion of the eyeballs)
• Pretibial myxedema" (mucoid edema in the pretibia area [swelling in lower leg area]) (Craig A Manifold, DO).

•  "Thyroid storm is a rare complication of hyperthyroidism. It often is precipitated by a physiologically stressful event. If untreated, thyroid storm may be fatal. ...High levels of thyroid hormones suppress the pituitary release of TSH, so TSH levels are usually low in thyrotoxicosis" (Craig A Manifold, DO)

* "Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland does not produce adequate levels of these critical hormones. Hypothyroidism is very common and is estimated to affect 3%-5% of the adult population. It is more common in women than in men, and the risk of developing hypothyroidism increases with advancing age. Hypothyroidism is most commonly a result of an autoimmune condition known as Hashimoto's thyroiditis, in which the body's own immune cells attack and destroy the thyroid gland" (medicinenet.com).  

    * Thyroiditis is inflammation of the thyroid gland and is classified into various sub categories. The attack by the immune                     system         causes inflammation in this gland which can lead to Hashimotos disease. thyroiditis is the most common
cause of hypothyroidism in United States affecting approximately 15 million American women" (ezinearticles.com).
* Hashimoto's disease is defined as "chronic thyroditis characterized by goiter, thyroid fibrosis,
infiltration of thyroid tissue by lymphoid tissue, and the production of autoantibodies that attack the thyroid"
(Miriam Webster's Medical Dictionarty, p. 276, 1995). “This disorder is believed to be the most common cause of
primary hypothyroidism in North America. It occurs far more often in women than in men (10:1 to 20:1), and is most
prevalent between 45 and 65 years of age“ (healthsystem.virginia.edu). "Incidence: 0.3–1.5 cases per 1,000 per year.
The female-to-male ratio is 20:1. The disease is most common in middle aged women, but it can affect all age groups
, including children" (Daniela Cihakova MD, PhD).

"Physiologically, antibodies against thyroid peroxidase and/or thyroglobulin cause gradual destruction of
follicles in the thyroid gland ... It is also characterized by invasion of the thyroid tissue by leukocytes, mainly
- lymphocytes." (AJ Giannini. 1986,pp.193-198). "All forms of thyroid autoimmunity typically start with
T and B cells: ... T and B cells infiltrate the thyroid gland in equal numbers. These white blood cells are the
primary infection-fighting immune cells. T cells identify invasive molecules, such as viral proteins, and
help B cells to produce antibodies that are designed specifically to attack these invaders. In cases of
autoimmunity, T cells are tricked into classifying molecules on the body's own cells as invaders. In such cases,
B cells then produce antibodies, called autoantibodies, which attack those cells. In most cases of thyroid
autoimmunity, the autoantibodies launch an attack on a thyroid protein called thyroid  peroxidase; this attack
appears to destroy thyroid cells" (endocrineweb.com).

* "Subacute Thyroiditis is a temporary condition that passes through three phases: hyperthyroidism,
hypothyroidism, and a return to normal thyroid levels. Patients may have symptoms of both hyperthyroidism and
hypothyroidism (rapid heartbeat, nervousness, weight loss), and they can feel extremely sick. Symptoms last about 6
- 8 weeks and then resolve in most patients, although each form carries some risk for becoming chronic.
Experts estimate that subacute thyroiditis is responsible for 1 0% of all cases of hypothyroidism" (adam.about.com).


"The three forms of subacute thyroiditis follow a similar course:
* "Painless Postpartum Subacute Thyroiditis - Postpartum thyroiditis is an autoimmune condition
that occurs in up to 10% of pregnant women and tends to develop between 4 - 12 months after delivery. In most
cases, a woman develops a small, painless goiter. Although 80% of women with this condition have normal thyroid
function within a year, some evidence suggests that half of women with this condition develop permanent
hypothyroidism within 7 years. Women who have had recurrent episodes after previous pregnancies and women who
have other autoimmune disorders are at higher risk for this form of subacute thyroiditis. It is generally self-
limiting and requires no therapy unless the hypothyroid phase is prolonged.
  * "Painless Sporadic, or Silent, Thyroiditis. This painless condition is very similar to postpartum
thyroiditis except it can occur in both men and women and at any age. About 20% of patients with silent
thyroiditis may develop chronic hypothyroidism.
  * "Painful, or Granulomatous, Thyroiditis. This condition comes on suddenly with flu-like symptoms and
severe neck pain and swelling. It generally occurs in the summer and is five times more common in women. It
recurs in about 2% of patients. Hypothyroidism persists in about 5%" (endocrineweb.com). 

 

 

* "Thyroiditis is the most common cause of hypothyroidism in United States affecting approximately 15 million American women"
(ezinearticles.com).  Thyroiditis is inflammation of the thyroid gland and is classified into various sub categories. 

The attack by the immune system causes inflammation in this gland which can lead to Hashimotos disease.

* Hashimoto's disease is defined as "chronic thyroditis characterized by goiter, thyroid fibrosis, infiltration of thyroid tissue by lymphoid tissue, and the production of autoantibodies that attack the thyroid" (Miriam Webster's Medical Dictionarty, p. 276, 1995).  It "is an autoimmune disease where the body's own T-cells attack the cells of the thyroid..... This disorder is believed to be the most common cause of primary hypothyroidism in North America. It occurs far more often in women than in men (10:1 to 20:1), and is most prevalent between 45 and 65 years of age....  Hashimoto's thyroiditis may result in hypothyroidism, although in its acute phase, it can cause a transient hyperthyroidism thyrotoxic state known as hashitoxicosis" (healthsystem.virginia.edu). 

Hashimoto's thyroiditis occurs when inflammation caused by an autoimmune process destroys the thyroid gland, leading to an insufficient production of thyroid hormones... "Incidence: 0.3–1.5 cases per 1,000 per year. The female-to-male ratio is 20:1. The disease is most common in middle aged women, but it can affect all age groups, including children" (Daniela Cihakova MD, PhD).   "Physiologically, antibodies against thyroid peroxidase and/or thyroglobulin cause gradual destruction of follicles in the thyroid gland ... It is also characterized by invasion of the thyroid tissue by leukocytes, mainly T-lymphocytes." (AJ Giannini.  1986,pp.193-198).  "All forms of thyroid autoimmunity typically start with T and B cells: ... T and B cells infiltrate the thyroid gland in equal numbers. These white blood cells are the primary infection-fighting immune cells. T cells identify invasive molecules, such as viral proteins, and help B cells to produce antibodies that are designed specifically to attack these invaders.  In cases of autoimmunity, T cells are tricked into classifying molecules on the body's own cells as invaders. In such cases, B cells then produce antibodies, called autoantibodies, which attack those cells. In most cases of thyroid autoimmunity, the autoantibodies launch an attack on a thyroid protein called thyroid  peroxidase; this attack appears to destroy thyroid cells" (endocrineweb.com).

* "Subacute Thyroiditis is a temporary condition that passes through three phases: hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and a return to normal thyroid levels. Patients may have symptoms of both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism (rapid heartbeat, nervousness, weight loss), and they can feel extremely sick. Symptoms last about 6 - 8 weeks and then resolve in most patients, although each form carries some risk for becoming chronic. Experts estimate that subacute thyroiditis is responsible for 10% of all cases of hypothyroidism" (adam.about.com).

"The three forms of subacute thyroiditis follow a similar course:

• "Painless Postpartum Subacute Thyroiditis. Postpartum thyroiditis is an autoimmune condition that occurs in up to 10% of pregnant women and tends to       develop between 4 - 12 months after delivery. In most cases, a woman develops a small, painless goiter. Although 80% of women with this condition have normal thyroid function within a year, some evidence suggests that half of women with this condition develop permanent hypothyroidism within 7 years. Women who have had recurrent episodes after previous pregnancies and women who have other autoimmune disorders are at higher risk for this form of subacute thyroiditis. It is generally self-limiting and requires no therapy unless the hypothyroid phase is prolonged.

•  "Painless Sporadic, or Silent, Thyroiditis. This painless condition is very similar to postpartum thyroiditis except it can occur in both men and women and at any age. About 20% of patients with silent thyroiditis may develop chronic hypothyroidism.

•  "Painful, or Granulomatous, Thyroiditis. This condition comes on suddenly with flu-like symptoms and severe neck pain and swelling. It generally occurs in the summer and is five times more common in women. It recurs in about 2% of patients. Hypothyroidism persists in about 5%. Treatments typically include pain relievers and, in severe cases, corticosteroids"  (endocrineweb.com). 

* Thyroid hormone resistance - "ADHD Symptoms suggestive of this disorder have been reported in subjects with generalized resistance to thyroid hormone, a disease caused by mutations in the thyroid receptor- gene and characterized by reduced responsiveness of peripheral and pituitary tissues to the actions of thyroid hormone"  ⁽Peter Hauser et al).

* Thyroid nodules do not function like normal thyroid tissue.

* Thyroid cancer which can occur at any age, can be very successfully treated if detected early" (Health News). (with natural remedies).

*  Goiter "is an abnormal swelling in the neck caused by an enlarged thyroid gland. It can become quite large. The problem occurs in at least 5% of the population worldwide. The most common cause of a goiter is lack of iodine, ...Even with the right amount of iodine, the thyroid gland can swell, creating a goiter. This can occur in any type of thyroid disease, including hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, thyroiditis, and thyroid cancer. However, many goiters develop with normal thyroid hormone levels and do not require treatment" (medicine.georgetown.edu).

What are the signs and symptoms of thyroid disease?
*  Hyperactive thyroid symptoms could include one or more of the following:

Mental/behavioral symptoms - "The literature also states that before hyperthyroidism was recognized as a disease, many patients with Graves' disease spent their days in asylums"  (Elaine Moore). 

•  Anxiety is the most common symptom.
•  "Graves Rage" - In "Grave's Rage",  the sufferer sometimes commits "acts which to them seem violent or out of character", such as screaming, throwing dishes, or assaulting some one, inappropriate feelings of anger, frequently followed by an impulsive destructive response to this anger, becoming "obsessed, not letting go of the inappropriate anger without some how lashing back" (Elaine Moore).  .
•  Nervousness
•  Irritability
•  Depression
•  Emotional and mental disability
•  Intense mood swings.
•  Sudden crying for no apparent reason
•  Overreacting
•  Feeling edgy and irritable one minute, and normal the next. 
•  Excessive worrying
•  Overall feeling of insecurity and instability
•  Panic attacks
•  Agoraphobia, a condition that renders its victims fearful of leaving their homes.
•  Inability to focus
•  Foggy memory
•  Poor job performance
•  Insomnia
•  Excessive concern about physical symptoms
•  Emotional withdrawal
•  Disorganized thinking
•  Guilt feelings
•  Loss of emotional control
•  Erratic behavior
•  Paranoia
•  Aggression
•   Psychosis
•  Disorientation

Physiological symptoms could include:

•  Enlarged thyroid
•   "Thyroid eye disorder" such as bulging eyes, swollen eyelids, unblinking stare, double vision, increased eye tearing.
•  Cardiovascular symptoms such as heart palpitations, chest pain, widened pulse pressure, congestive heart failure (may be a high output failure), tachycardia (rapid heart rate)
•  Dyspnea (difficulty breathing), shortness of breath
•  Edema (fluid retention)
•  Fever, heat intolerance, increased sweating
•  Fatigue
•  Muscle weakness, myopathy (muscle disorder), periodic paralysis, muscle wasting can be so dramatic that climbing stairs becomes difficult.
•  Increased appetite
•  Dehydration
•  Warm, moist skin, skin changes
•  Shock
•  Sounds arising within the thyroid
•  Trembling hands - "Tremors and hyperkinetic movements are also a frequent occurrence and are caused by the effect of excess thyroid hormone on the nervous system" (Arem, Ridha, 1999). 
•  Bowel problems such as increased frequency of bowel movements, diarrhea
•  Weight loss
•  Hair loss
•  Brittle nails
•  Menstrual problems such as decreased and less frequent menstrual flow, infrequent or absent menstrual periods
•  Diminished sex drive
•  Abnormal breast enlargement in men

*  Thyrotoxicosis symptoms commonly include staring (infrequent blinking), lid lag" (Craig A Manifold, DO).

*   Hypothyroid (underactive) symptoms could include:  "The most common symptoms are

•  Fatigue, feeling slow, drowsy during the day, even after sleeping all night, lethargy

•  Unexplained weight gain

•  Forgetfulness

•  Difficulty concentrating

•  Dry, coarse hair, hair loss, loss of eyebrow hair

•  Dry skin

•  Brittle nails

•  Heavy menstrual periods

•  Feeling cold" (NSW Health).  "Low TH levels also produce ...slight

•  Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)

•  Slowed digestion of food

•  Constipation

•  Infertility

•  Slow heart rate

•  Muscle cramps

•  Husky voice

•  Depression

•  Milky discharge from the breasts

•  Goiter

*  Hashimoto's disease – 'Symptoms of Hashimoto's thyroiditis might include symptoms of hyperthyroidism in the early phase of the disease, and then hypothyroidism.  Hashimoto's thyroiditis is often misdiagnosed as bipolar disorder and, less frequently, as anxiety disorder" ( AJ Giannini, 1986,pp.193-198 ). 

How do thyroid disorders affect the rest of the body?
 "The pituitary gland, parathyroid glands, and sex glands all work together and are influenced by thyroid function. If there is a problem in one place, they all may be affected" (James F. Balch, MD, 1989,  p. 211).

•  Psychiatric diseases - "Some of the most profound effects of TH imbalance are in the mental arena" (csa.com) "Hypothyroid people sleep easily and do not get full refreshment from their sleep. During waking hours, they experience fatigue, apathy, and "brain fog" (short-term memory problems and attention deficits). These problems may affect their daily functioning and cause increased stress and depression. ... TH acts as a neurotransmitter. TH imbalance can mimic psychiatric disease because T3 influences levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter integral to moods and behavior. Low levels of T3 can cause depression. Some anti-depressants make hypothyroid patients feel even worse because the medications depress T3 levels. Paradoxically, some substances labelled depressants such as alcohol or opiates can increase T3 levels by impairing the breakdown of T3 in the brain, thus lifting mood. This may be one reason why these substances are so addictive" (Phillips).

One study investigated relationships between peripheral thyroid hormone levels and cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral glucose metabolism in affectively ill patients . "CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that peripheral TSH (putatively the best marker of thyroid status) is inversely related to global and regional CBF and cerebral glucose metabolism. These findings indicate relationships between thyroid and cerebral activity that could provide mechanistic hypotheses for thyroid contributions to primary and secondary mood disorders and the psychotropic effects of thyroid axis manipulations" (LB Marangell, et al).

• Alzheimer's - "Severe hypothyroidism can cause symptoms similar to Alzheimer's disease: memory loss, confusion, slowness, paranoid depression, and in extreme stages, hallucinations. (Philips).  "An extremely rare condition associated with the thyroiditis is Hashimoto's encephalopathy" (en.wikipedia.org).
   
•  Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a well-recognized psychiatric disorder of childhood..... Symptoms suggestive of this disorder have been reported in subjects with generalized resistance to thyroid hormone, a disease caused by mutations in the thyroid receptor- gene and characterized by reduced responsiveness of peripheral and pituitary tissues to the actions of thyroid hormone.  Conclusions In our study sample, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder is strongly associated with generalized resistance to thyroid hormone" (Peter Hauser, et al).
   
•  Central nervous system disorders - "Thyroid hormones are widely distributed in the brain and have a multitude of effects on the central nervous system. Notably many of the limbic system structures where thyroid hormone receptors are prevalent have been implicated in the pathogenesis of mood disorders. The influence of the thyroid system on neurotransmitters (particularly serotonin and norepinephrine), which putatively play a major role in the regulation of mood and behavior, may contribute to the mechanisms of mood modulation. Recent functional brain imaging studies using positron emission tomography (PET) with [¹⁸F]-fluorodeoxyglucose demonstrated that thyroid hormone treatment with levothyroxine affects regional brain metabolism in patients with hypothyroidism and bipolar disorder. Theses studies confirm that thyroid hormones are active in modulating metabolic function in the mature adult brain" (M. Bauer^, Pharmacopsychiatry 2003).
   
•  Thyroid eye disease (in Grave's disease ) - "The eye symptoms usually appear when thyroid hormone levels are too high but can occur when these levels are normal or below normal" (2008, uic.edu/com).  Possible eye effects include:
      * Proptosis (Protrusion of one or both eyeballs) - "This finding is present in 70 – 90% of cases of thyroid eye disease. The swelling that causes     proptosis is due to collections of fluid, fat, and inflammatory cells. ... Proptosis may gradually increase to the extent that the cornea (the transparent tissue covering the front of the eye) becomes exposed. This exposure leads to drying and inflammation, which can progress to severe infections and ulcers
  of the cornea in extreme cases. Also, the orbital swelling may be so severe that the pressure within the eye increases, leading to glaucoma. The optic nerve, which is responsible for sending information received from the eye to the brain, may become strangled, resulting in severe or total visual loss" (2008, uic.edu/com)..
      * Inflammation and swelling of the tissues around the eye, including the orbital fat and eye muscles
      * Puffy, swollen eyelids.
      * Gritty, burning, irritated eyes that frequently water.
      * Diplopia (double vision) - "The muscles that move the eyes may also become congested and stiff. This leads to double vision, since the muscles are unable to move the eyes together. As the disease gets worse, scarring of these muscles may occur, resulting in permanent limitation of eye movements" (2008, uic.edu/com)..
      * Decreased vision, often following reduced brightness of colors.
      * Redness and swelling of the conjunctiva, the thin layer covering the white part of the eye.
      * Difficulty in completely closing the eyelids, especially while sleeping.
   
•  Hyperventilation with alkalosis.
   
•  Elevated cholesterol levels - "Hypothyroidism is the second leading cause of high cholesterol, after diet. When TH levels drop, the liver no longer functions properly and produces excess cholesterol, fatty acids, and triglycerides, which increase the risk of heart disease. High cholesterol may also contribute to the risk of Alzheimer's disease. (Philips).
   
•  Heart problems - "Hyperthyroidism causes accelerated heart rate and fatigue, even when patients are at rest. ... Some experience thyroid storms--high overloads of thyroid hormones that accelerate their heart rate to as high as 300 beats a minute. This is a very life-endangering condition and can result in arrhythmia or heart attack. ... (Phillips).  "Untreated hypothyroidism can lead to an enlarged heart (cardiomyopathy), worsening heart failure. (medicinenet.com). "TH imbalance has a profound effect on cardiovascular fitness because TH helps control heart rate and blood pressure. (Philips). Under hypothyroid conditions, the heart can slow to 30 heart beats a minute and develop arrhythmia. Blood pressure may fall from normal levels of 120/90 to 70/50" (Philips).   Hashimoto's thyroiditis may lead to ...heart failure" (healthsystem.virginia.edu).  "In hypothyroidism, thyrotropin-release hormone (TRH) is usually increased, increasing release of TSH. TRH itself can cause tachycardia, "palpitations," high blood pressure... It can increase the release of norepinephrine, but in itself it acts very much like adrenalin. TRH stimulates prolactin release, and this can interfere with progesterone synthesis, which in itself affects heart function" (Raymond Peat, PhD, 2010).
   
•  Muscle weakness - Hypothyroid (underactive) "produces lower exercise tolerance because protein and fat catabolism are accelerated, resulting in build-up of ketones. (Phillips,).  Hypothyroid (underactive) "has the effect of slowing the body down" (NSW Health).  "Hashimoto's thyroiditis may lead to muscle failure" (healthsystem.virginia.edu).  "With respiration impaired and oxygen in short supply, exercise takes a heavy toll on the body, and muscles do not strengthen in response to exercise; nor does stamina improve" (Philips).
   
•    Impaired breathing - Hypothyroidism also weakens muscles in "the diaphragm. As a result, breathing can become less efficient. A goiter impairs breathing even more. Snoring may start or become worse" (Philips).
   
•  Pleural effusion -  "Untreated hypothyroidism can lead to ...an accumulation of fluid around the lungs" (medicinenet.com).
   
•  Yellowing of the skin - Hypothyroid patients may develop yellowed skin due to carotenoid (Vitamin A precursors) deposits in the skin when the liver no longer can store enough. Vitamin A usage and synthesis drops as thyroid hormone levels drop" (Philips).
   
•  Non- Hodgkin's lymphoma -  "Thyroid disorders are "associated with non-Hodgkin lymphoma" (healthsystem.virginia.edu).
   
•  Hashimoto's thyroiditis may result in hypothyroidism, although in its acute phase, it can cause a transient hyperthyroidism thyrotoxic state known as hashitoxicosis" An extremely rare condition associated with the thyroididis is Hashimoto's encephalopathy" (healthsystem.virginia.edu).
   
•  Intestinal stasis (constipation) can result from hypothyroid.
   
•  Bulging eyes, swollen eye lids, increase of pressure in the eye.
   
•  Hyperventilation with alkalosis
   
•  Nervous system disorders - “Graves' disease can have an effect on many parts of the body such as the nervous system, eyes, skin, hair/nails, lungs, digestive system, muscles/bones and reproductive system” (HealthCentralNetwork, Inc). 
   
•  Hormone Imbalance may have the following effects on a woman's body:
  *  "Thyroid disorders can cause abnormally early or late onset of puberty and menstruation. In addition, abnormally high or low levels of thyroid hormone can cause very light or very heavy menstrual periods, very irregular menstrual periods, or absent menstrual periods (a condition called amenorrhea).
  *  "An overactive or underactive thyroid may also affect ovulation. Thyroid disorders may prevent ovulation from occurring at all. In addition, the ovaries are at an increased risk for cyst development if the woman has an underactive thyroid (hypothyroid). Severe hypothyroidism can actually cause milk production in the breast, while preventing ovulation.
  *  "Thyroid disorders during pregnancy can harm the fetus and may lead to postpartum thyroid problems, such as postpartum thyroiditis. 
• *  "Thyroid disorders may cause the early onset of menopause (before age 40 or in the early 40s). In addition, some symptoms of hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) such as lack of menstruation, hot flashes, insomnia, and mood swings may be mistaken for early menopause. Treating hyperthyroidism sometimes can alleviate symptoms of, or the actual onset of, early menopause" (healthsystem.virginia.edu).  

How are thyroid disorders diagnosed?   

•   Blood tests - "Both conditions can be diagnosed with a blood test, but may not show up until it increases in severity.  While in many cases T4 values give good indications of thyroid status, T4 values should be normalized for individual variations in thyroxine binding protein (TBP) capacity. The Free Thyroxine Index (FTI) is conventionally used to achieve this measurement. To ensure maximum diagnostic accuracy, the final definition of thyroid status should be determined in conjunction with other thyroid function tests such as TSH, FT4, Total T3, FTI and clinical evaluation by the physician" (abbottdiagnostics.com).   Autoimmune thyroid disease is identified by detecting antibodies in the blood.    

•   Thyroid function studies - "In hyperthyroidism, free T4 is elevated and TSH is decreased. Thyroid function studies do not distinguish thyrotoxicosis from thyroid storm. Studies may include "low serum cortisol, normocytic, normochromic anemia and leukocytosis (common), nonspecific electrolyte abnormalities (common), low serum cholesterol, hyperglycemia, hypercalcemia, hypokalemia (may be associated with periodic paralysis), liver functions tests, chest x-ray may identify congestive heart failure or pulmonary infections, often associated with progression to thyroid storm, nuclear thyroid scan, diffuse uptake in Graves disease, focal uptake in toxic nodular thyroiditis" (Craig A Manifold, DO).   

•   "A thyroid image (scan) done with a radioactive chemical shows the size, shape, and function of the gland and of thyroid nodules. A nodule that takes up more of the radioactive material than the rest of the gland is called a hot nodule. A nodule that takes up less radioactive material is a cold nodule. Hot nodules are seldom cancerous, but less than 10% of all nodules are hot. Cold nodules may or may not be cancerous" (medicine.georgetown.edu).  However the radioactive material used can be a cause of thyroid problems, including thyroid cancer.   

What are the causes of thyroid disorders?

•  "Iodine deficiency is the major cause of hypothyroidism for much of the world, due to absence of iodine in the diet and/or high consumption of soy, corn, and Brassica plants (cabbage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, etc.). ... Iodine overdose rarely is a problem, as the thyroid gland stores iodine until it is necessary, and releases TH in the less active T4 form, and TH is also bound up by transport proteins in the blood until it is needed" (Phillips).
   

•  Cholesterol deficiency or excess - "When people have abnormally low cholesterol, I think it's important to increase their cholesterol before taking thyroid, since their steroid-forming tissues won't be able to respond properly to thyroid without adequate cholesterol. ... High cholesterol is more closely connected to hypothyroidism" (Raymond Peat, PhD, 2010).
   

•  Autoimmune thyroid disease – "In the case of Graves' disease, antibodies latch onto an enzyme essential for making T4, and keep it active and continually turned on" (Phillips).
   

•  Severe illness or injury may lead to lower levels of TH, "which rebound once the patient is healed" (abbottdiagnostics.com).  " A variety of medical conditions can involve the thyroid and change the normal gland tissue so that it no longer produces enough thyroid hormone. Examples include hemochromatosis, scleroderma, and amyloidosis.... Chronic disease, such as Lyme disease, can mimic (or cause) hypothyroidism. (Philips).  " In Severe or chronic illnesses,...(such as) infectious and chronic active hepatitis, biliary cirrhosis, renal failure, or congenital increase in TBG levels, many abnormalities of thyroid hormone balance occur. Conversely, when TBG levels are decreased, such as in nephrotic syndrome, androgen therapy, glucocorticoid therapy, major systemic illness or congenital decrease of TBG, T4 may be reduced" (abbottdiagnostics.com).  "Thyroid storm can be triggered by many different events; pulmonary infection (most common precipitating event), autoimmune trigger, diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperosmolar coma, ...cardiovascular events, toxemia of pregnancy" (Craig A Manifold, DO).
   

•  Toxic thyroid nodules- "A toxic (hyperfunctional) thyroid nodule (adenoma) is an area of abnormal local tissue growth within the thyroid gland. This abnormal tissue produces thyroid hormones even without stimulation by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Thus, a nodule escapes the mechanisms that normally control the thyroid gland and produces thyroid hormones in large quantities. Toxic multinodular goiter (Plummer's disease), in which there are many nodules, is uncommon in adolescents and young adults and tends to become more common with aging" (merck.com).
   

•  Glandular malfunctions such as pituitary gland, hypothalamus in the brain, adrenal, and pancreas can affect thyroid function.  "In rare instances, usually due to a tumor, the pituitary gland will fail to produce thyrotropin (TSH), the hormone that stimulates the thyroid to produce its hormones. In such cases, the thyroid gland withers. When this happens, secondary hypothyroidism occurs" (umm.edu).  "An overactive pituitary gland can produce too much TSH, which in turn leads to overproduction of thyroid hormones. However, this is an extremely rare cause of hyperthyroidism" (merck.com).
   

•  Hormone imbalance -  "Estrogen excess  or progesterone deficiency tends to cause enlargement of the thyroid gland, in association with a hypothyroid state. ... In hypothyroidism, there is a tendency to have too much estrogen and cortisol, and too little progesterone" (Raymond Peat, PhD, 2010).  "Estrogen, progesterone, and thyroid hormones are interrelated. ... The taking of thyroid supplements was especially common in women with this condition (estrogen dominance syndrome). When I attempted to correct their estrogen dominance by adding progesterone, it was common to see that their need for thyroid supplements decreased and could often be successfully eliminated" (infertilityworkshop.com). 
   

•  Low caloric intake/starvation - "TH fluctuates in response to caloric intake and external temperature. During starvation, the body naturally lowers TH, not only to reduce caloric needs, but also to prevent ketone bodies from building up in the blood and kidneys" (Philips).
   

•  Malnutrition is an underlying cause of most diseases, and can cause abnormal levels of thyroid hormones..  A series of studies showed that  "Alterations in nutritional state, whether short term or chronic, affect physiology of the thyroid hormone, especially peripheral hormone metabolism. ... In children with protein energy malnutrition PEM, concentrations of all three thyroid hormone binding proteins are extremely low, and the serum T4 and T3 levels decline abruptly, often into clearly hypo-thyroid range" (S. Turkay, et al, 1995).
   

•   Vitamin A deficiency - "Several cross-sectional studies have found that VAD (Vitamin A deficiency) increases the risk for goiter. In Senegalese adults and  Ethiopian children there was a strong negative correlation between increasing severity of goiter and serum retinol (Vitamin A).  "Another study (double-blind, randomized, 10-month trial) was done to determine the effects of Vitamin A deficiency and vitamin A supplementation on thyroid function in an area of endemic goiter.  During the (nutritional) intervention, mean thyroglobulin, median TSH, and the goiter rate significantly decreased in the Vitamin A-treated group compared with those in the placebo group.... The findings indicate that Vitamin A deficiency in severely Iodine deficiency disorder-affected children increases TSH stimulation and thyroid size and reduces the risk for hypothyroidism. ...In areas of endemic goiter, micronutrient status can be an important determinant of iodine and thyroid metabolism (7). (Michael B. Zimmermann, et al,, 2004, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism).
   

•   Deficiencies of selenium (8) and iron (4) can act in concert with iodine deficiency to impair thyroid metabolism and modify the response to prophylactic iodine (9, 10).  (Zimmermann).
   

•  "Magnesium is typically deficient in hypothyroidism" (Raymond Peat, PhD, 2010).
   

•   Tyrosine deficiency - The thyroid gland makes thyroid hormones from the amino acid L-tyrosine and iodine (infertilityworkshop.com).
   

•   Caffeine and other stimulants interfere with T3 and adrenal hormone metabolism while in the body" (Phillips). 
   

•  "Smoking increases the metabolic effects of hypothyroidism in a dose-dependent way. This may be explained by alteration of both thyroid function and hormone action. ... Results Among the women with subclinical hypothyroidism, the smokers had a higher mean ...serum thyrotropin concentration ^...and a higher ratio of serum triiodothyronine to serum free thyroxine (by 30 percent,...) than the nonsmokers" (Beat Müller, M.D., et al).  ^"Smoking depresses TH levels and produces an chronic underlying hypothyroidism as well as low adrenal hormone levels. The hormonal imbalances due to smoking may contribute to the severity of withdrawal symptoms in smokers trying to quit. Research shows that nicotine increases the synthesis of T3 from T4 in the brain" (Phillips).  Another study showed the "antithyroid action of cigarette smoking products ... Thiocyanate concentrations (from smoking tobacco) equivalent to serum levels of smokers showed three independent antithyroid actions: (i) inhibition of iodide transport, (ii) inhibition of iodine organification, and (iii) increased iodide efflux" (Fukayama H, et al, Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1992).
   

•  Medical procedures such as surgery, radiation, certain drugs, can cause hypothyroidism.  "High-dose radiation for cancers of the head or neck and for Hodgkin's disease causes hypothyroidism in up to 65% of patients within 10 years after treatment" (umm.edu).  "People who have been treated with radiotherapy for acne (a common treatment in the 1960s) may have an increased risk of thyroid cancer" (Health.News).  "Attempted surgical treatment of hyperthyroidism, withdrawal of antithyroid medication, radioactive iodine, vigorous palpation of the thyroid gland in hyperthyroid patients' can trigger Thyroid storm (Craig A Manifold, DO).
   

•  Medicinal drugs such as aspirin (decreased protein binding and subsequent increases in free T3 and T4 levels have been reported with aspirin usage). Other thyroid-damaging drugs include insulin, radioactive iodine, (synthetic) thyroid hormone, phenylbutazone, diphenylhydantoin, salicylates, estrogen therapy. Depressed levels may occur during therapy with the antithyroid drugs propranolol, propylthiouracil (abbotdiognostics.com).  "Drugs and (inorganic) iodine can cause hyperthyroidism. Drugs include amiodarone (cordarone), interferon-alpha, and, rarely, lithium (Lithane, Lithonate), excess (inorganic) iodine, as may occur in people taking certain expectorants, or iodine-containing contrast agents for x-ray studies may cause hyperthyroidism" (merck.com).  "Drugs used for treating epilepsy, such as phenytoin and carbamazepine, can reduce thyroid levels. Certain antidepressants may cause hypothyroidism, although this is rare. Interferons and interleukins are used for treating hepatitis, multiple sclerosis, and other conditions. Evidence suggests that these drugs increase antibodies that put patients at risk for hypo- or hyperthyroidism. Some drugs used in cancer chemotherapy, such as sunitinib (Sunent) or imatinib (Gleevec), can also cause or worsen hypothyroidism" (umm.edu).
   

•  Withdrawal of antithyroid medication
   

•  Chemicals, man-made or environmental – "Experts believe that pollutants are a more important factor. Pollutant chemicals like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins have been shown to interfere with thyroid function and are more prevalent in industrialized countries where thyroid disease levels are high" (Phillips).  "Chlorine, fluoride block iodine receptors in the thyroid gland, resulting in reduced iodine-containing hormone production' (Balch, MD, p. 214).
   

•  Heredity - "Two autoimmune thyroid diseases, Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis, are thought to be inherited, but have not been linked positively to any genes" (Phillips).  "Hypothyroidism in newborns (known as congenital hypothyroidism) occurs in one in every 3,000 - 4,000 births, making it the most common hormonal disorder in infants. In 90% of these cases, it persists throughout life" (umm.edu).
   

•  Stress – "Autoimmune thyroid disease, either hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism, is also linked to post-traumatic stress disorder and is often first observed clinically after periods of prolonged stress.  ... Smokers and other substance abusers should be watched for hypothyroidism (and urged to quit), as stimulants and depressants both can affect TH metabolism" (Phillips).  "When "the adrenal glands, the front line in the stress reaction... show wear and tear and become depleted, this frequently leads to an impairment in the thyroid gland, which can cause a further decline in energy level and mood" (Mercola).

What is the medical approach to treating thyroid disease?
"Secondary hypothyroidism is a risk after thyroid surgery, radioablation, or thyroiditis" (medicine.com, 2010). "Graves' disease is treated by suppressing or killing (removing) the thyroid and then stabilizing the patient on thyroid hormone replacements" (Phillips).  A "Dutch study discussed the long-term complaints and psychosocial problems after remission from hyperthyroidism. More than three hundred treated hyperthyroid patients were studied,  ... approximately one third of the total sample had a score exceeding that seen in 80% of normal females. Lack of energy was evident in 53% of respondents. More than one third of patients with a full-time job were unable to resume the same work after treatment,  (Elaine Moore).  Thyroid destruction requires the use (possibly permanently) of antithyroid drugs or iodides to avoid thyrotoxic crisis" (originaldrugs.com, 2010).

•  "Radioactive iodine therapy is the most widely used permanent treatment of hyperthyroidism in the United States. ... "By giving radioactive iodine, cells in the thyroid are damaged or destroyed and are unable to produce further thyroid hormone" (originaldrugs.com, 2010).  "Up to half or more of patients who receive radioactive iodide treatments for an overactive thyroid develop permanent hypothyroidism within a year of therapy. This is the standard treatment for Graves' disease, which is the most common form of hyperthyroidism, a condition caused by excessive secretion of thyroid hormones" (umm.edu, 2009).  "Evidence that its incidence might be increasing was apparent from two recent studies. ...Fifty percent were hypothyroid within 3 mo and 69% within 1 yr of treatment. Our data suggest that there is a higher incidence of hypothyroidism after standard doses of 1-131 in the 1970s as contrasted with treatment groups in the 1950s and 1960s" (jnm.snmjournals.org).  Other possible side effects and complications of radioactive iodine therapy include metallic taste in the mouth, dry mouth, tightness in throat, sore throat, pain in the neck; nausea, vomiting, constipation or diarrhea; fatigue; abnormally high or abnormally low thyroid levels; flushing; decreased taste; radiation thyroiditis; worsening of thyroid eye disease.
   

•   Surgery (thyroidectomy) involves removing part of the thyroid gland.  Possible side effects could include hypothyroidism or hyperthyroid relapse; temporary or permanent hypoparathyroidism or laryngeal paralysis.  The anesthesia and antibiotics used in surgery can cause a severe fungal infection that can damage the immune system and affect moods and behavior.
   

• Drug therapy includes the use of beta-blocking agents and antithyroid drugs (ATD). 

            *"Beta-blockers (e.g., Inderal, Tenormin, Lopressor) are used to immediately relieve the symptoms caused by excessive thyroid hormones. ... These drugs won't reduce the thyroid hormone levels in the blood. However, they greatly improve hyperthyroidism symptoms until thyroid hormones levels are reduced by other therapies. ... (Beta-blockers) do not cure the hyperthyroidism." (originaldrugs.com, 2010).  Possible side effects include cold hands and feet, tiredness and sleep disturbance (nightmares), dizziness, wheezing, digestive tract problems, skin rashes, dry eyes, erectile dysfunction or impotence. "Beta-blockers, used to treat hypertension, are associated with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes, ... "Cardiorespiratory arrest in a healthy volunteer after a single l dose of 80 mg of the beta-blocker propranolol" (Rover MD,  et al, Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2010 Sep 6). Higher rate of cataract in eye" (Dr. G. L. Kanthan Br J Ophthalmol 2009;93:1210-1214).

        *"Antithyroid drugs interfere with the ability of the thyroid gland to synthesize its hormones. They gradually reduce the thyroid hormone levels over 2-8 weeks or longer, and are usually given in high doses until the thyroid gland functions normally (becomes euthyroid). The treatment with anti-thyroid medications usually continues at least a year and often longer" (originaldrugs.com, 2010).  The most commonly used medications include methimazole (Tapazole), propylthiouracil (PTU), and carbimazole" (originaldrugs.com, 2010)..

        *Methimazole (Tapazole) has a "high relapse rate (relapse is more likely in smokers, patients with large goiters, and patients with positive thyroid-stimulating antibody levels at the end of therapy" (originaldrugs.com, 2010).  Possible side effects include serious liver damage, rare cholestasis (failure of bile flow), allergic reactions, such as rash, fever, and arthralgia, agranulocytosis (a condition in which the white blood cells, which fight infection, disappear from the body, manifested by fever and sore throat);

        * Propylthiouracil (PTU) "can cause serious liver damage. PTU can cause elevated liver enzymes (30%), and immunoallergic hepatitis (0.1-0.2%)"   (originaldrugs.com, 2010)..  Possible side effects include liver injury resulting in hepatitis, liver failure, a need for liver transplantation or death. Inhibition of myelopoiesis (agranulocytosis, granulopenia, and thrombocytopenia), aplastic anemia, drug fever, a lupus-like syndrome (including splenomegaly and vasculitis),  periartentis, and hypoprothrombinemia, bleeding, nephritis, glomerulonephritis, interstitial pneumonitis, exfoliative dermatitis, erythema nodosum, vasculitis syndrome associated with the presence of anti-neutrophilic cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA), rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (crescentic and pauci-immune necrotizing glomerulonephritis), acute renal failure; pulmonary infiltrates or alveolar hemorrhage; skin ulcers; and leucocytoclastic vasculitis. "Minor adverse reactions include skin rash, urticaria, nausea, vomiting, epigastric distress, arthralgia, paresthesias, loss of taste, taste perversion, abnormal loss of hair, myalgia, headache, pruritus, drowsiness, neuritis, edema, vertigo, skin pigmentation, jaundice, sialadenopathy,  lymphadenopathy, drowsiness; enlarged salivary glands; feeling of whirling motion; headache; itching; muscle pain; swelling; swollen or painful lymph nodes, severe allergic reactions (rash; hives; itching; difficulty breathing; tightness in the chest; swelling of the mouth, face, lips, or tongue); blood cell changes; fever; sore throat; unusual bleeding or bruising. (drugs.com).  Also possible, hypersensitivity; antivitamin K activity; may potentiate activity of oral anticoagulants, Unsafe in pregnancy. 

        * Thyroid hormone replacements - "Hashimoto's thyroiditis is treated with thyroid hormone replacements. Symptoms could include depression, mania, fatigue, panic attacks, migraines, memory loss, bradycardia, tachycardia, high cholesterol, reactive hypoglycemia, difficulty concentrating or thinking, brain fog, anger, constipation, dry coarse skin, dry or brittle hair, hair loss, enlarged neck or presence of goiter, shortness of breath (dyspnea) or difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) infertility, heavy and irregular periods, intolerance to cold, weight gain, small or shrunken thyroid gland (late in the disease), joint stiffness, swelling of the face ("moon face) , muscle weakness and/or cramps, increased menstrual flow, and increased risk of miscarriage" (healthsystem.virginia.edu/uvahealth; 
abbottdiagnostics.com).

    *  Synthroid (Generic name: Levothyroxine, Other brand names: Levothroid, Levoxyl, Unithroid) -  Possible Synthroid side effects could include one or more of the following: hair loss, allergic reaction such as difficulty breathing; closing of your throat; swelling of your lips, tongue, or face; or hives; vomiting; chest pain, irregular heartbeat, shortness of breath, tremor, nervousness, irritability; headache; insomnia; diarrhea; changes in appetite; weight loss; leg cramps; menstrual irregularities; fever; sweating; heat sensitivity (drugs.com).   

"Children may have an increase in pressure within the skull. Excessive dosage or a too rapid increase in dosage may lead to overstimulation of the thyroid gland.  Symptoms of overstimulation: Abdominal cramps, anxiety, changes in appetite, change in menstrual periods, chest pain, diarrhea, emotional instability, fatigue, fever, flushing, hair loss, headache, heart attack or failure, heat intolerance, hyperactivity, increased heart rate, irregular heartbeat, irritability, muscle weakness, nausea, nervousness, palpitations, shortness of breath, sleeplessness, sweating, tremors, vomiting, weight loss,... seizures... Although Synthroid will speed up your metabolism, it is not effective as a weight-loss drug and should not be used as such. An overdose may cause life-threatening side effects, especially if you take Synthroid with an appetite-suppressant medication... If you have diabetes, or if your body makes insufficient adrenal corticosteroid hormone, Synthroid will tend to make your symptoms worse... Postmenopausal women on long-term Synthroid therapy may suffer a loss of bone density, increasing the danger of osteoporosis (brittle bones)... An overdose of Synthroid can produce the same symptoms of overstimulation listed under "Synthroid side effects" Confusion and disorientation are also possible, and there have been reports of stroke, shock, coma, and death" (pdrhealth.com/drug_info.

    *  Sodium iodide  - Documented hypersensitivity; pulmonary edema; bronchitis; tuberculosis; hyperkalemia, increases lithium toxicity by producing additive hypothyroid effects, Prolonged use may result in hypothyroidism; caution in renal failure and GI obstruction; iododerma, coryza, cough, nausea, rhinorrhea, and parotiditis may occur" (Craig A Manifold, DO).

    *  "Methimazole (Tapazole - Documented hypersensitivity; antivitamin K activity and may potentiate activity of oral anticoagulants, Unsafe in pregnancy, Rashes are common; agranulocytosis may occur; ... may cause hypoprothrombinemia and bleeding

     *  "Lugol solution -- Inhibits thyroid hormone secretion., Documented hypersensitivity; pulmonary edema; bronchitis; tuberculosis; hyperkalemia, Increases lithium toxicity by inducing additive hypothyroid effects, Prolonged use may result in hypothyroidism; caution in renal failure or GI obstruction" (Craig A Manifold, DO).

    *  Levothyroxine, a drug commonly used to treat thyroid conditions, causes up to 13% bone loss", according to a study done at the University of Massachusetts (Balch, MD, p. 214).  "Complications as a result of induced hypemetabolic state may include cardiac failure and death due to arrhythmia or failure" (PDR p.1301).

 What are the safe natural alternative remedies?
Thyroid disorders may be often hereditary, however, according to many genetic scientists, “Your DNA isn't your destiny“ (Cloud, 2010), “It is often believed that the genetic code of a person … determines the physical makeup of that individual. For the most part, this is true. However, there are other factors which can modify the expression of the genetic code and alter the physical expression of a trait“ (Huston, 2009). “Gene expression is a turning point for the gene, when something happens at a certain point in time. A clear example of this is the transition of a caterpillar into a butterfly. The genes are no different before or after the metamorphosis, but certain genes have expressed themselves to make the change a reality. … this gene expression is guided in large part by nutrition. If the caterpillar doesn’t get the proper nutrients, the genes for change will not express, and the caterpillar will not ever become a butterfly. The same holds true for humans, perhaps in a slightly less dramatic fashion. If you do not get the proper nutrition, your genes will not fully express themselves, and you will not reach your full potential“ (lanereiss.wordpress.com).
“It is through epigenetic marks that environmental factors like diet, stress and prenatal nutrition can make an imprint on genes that is passed from one generation to the next” (Cloud, 2010). “Diet and nutrition are examples of factors which may affect and even overcome genetic expression" (Huston, 2009).

"Natural medicines allow the promotion of healthy thyroid ..., but they do not have the side effects that hormone replacement therapy does. ...The best course of treatment for Hashimoto's Disease (or any other disorder) is through simple lifestyle changes and natural medicines." (topherbalremedies.com).  

A Wellness Consultation will provide information on how to eliminate the causes of disease that pertain to you, and on the right foods, herbs, and nutritional supplements that will work best to nourish the thyroid and other affected organs back to health and proper functioning, leaving you free of all those terrible symptoms. 

 My clients that have followed my individualized program, have all regained their proper thyroid function as well as overall health, energy, and happiness.  A couple of excerpts from client testimonies follow.

•  "Dr. Laurie is the best alternative health care provider I have been to.  My thyroid was underactive and I was taking drugs for it, but they didn't help.  When I came to Dr. Lynch and followed her program for a few months, my thyroid tested out as healed." --Patricia from Fayetteville, NC.

•  "My thyroid condition is fine and I am continuing my food regimen." --Fred from Ca.

•  With proper diet and the right nutritional supplements, it usually takes about 3 or 4 months for the thyroid to heal itself. It took me three months for my thyroid to return to normal functioning. So hang in there, you can heal too. – Dr. Laurie

 Call for an appointment @ the Living Well Health & Education Center, 3342 Legion Rd., Hope Mills, N.C., or for a telephone consultation.  Dr. Lynch works with clients all over the world by phone or in her office.  Call now to start on the right path to obtain your ideal health, weight, memory, energy, happiness, and youthfulness!  (910) 426-5159   drllynch@embarqmail.com

Refferences:
* http://www.knowbalance.com/index.php?p=20600)
* NSW Health, 1999, BHC-5425)
* Jennifer A. Phillips, Thyroid Hormone Disorders, 2001, http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/thyroid/overview.php
* Thyroid Disease, Basic Thyroid Information, Georgetown University Department of Medicine, http://medicine.georgetown.edu/endocrinology/pi_thyroid_disease.htm
* 2008, http://www.uic.edu/com/eye/LearningAboutVision/EyeFacts/ThyroidEyeDisease.shtml
* Hashimotos Disease, Thyroiditis Herbal Treatment, http://www.yourbodycanheal.com/hashimotos-disease.html
* http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/uvahealth/adult_endocrin/thygland.cfm
* http://www.endocrineweb.com/thyfunction.html
* AbbottDiagnostics. http://www.abbottdiagnostics.com/Your_Health/Thyroid/function.cfm).
* http://www.infertilityworkshop.com/articles/hormonalhealth/thyroid.htm
* Michael B. Zimmermann, Rita Wegmüller, Christophe Zeder, Nourredine Chaouki and Toni Torresani, 2004, The Effects of Vitamin A Deficiency and Vitamin A Supplementation on Thyroid Function in Goitrous Children, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism Vol. 89, No. 11 5441-5447, http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/content/full/89/11/5441
* Beat Müller, M.D., Henryk Zulewski, M.D., Peter Huber, Ph.D., John G. Ratcliffe, M.D., and Jean-Jacques Staub, M.D., Impaired Action of Thyroid Hormone Associated with Smoking in Women with Hypothyroidism,  PMID: 1283478 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE])
* Fukayama H, Nasu M, Murakami S, Sugawara M., Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Wadsworth VA Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, Examination of antithyroid effects of smoking products in cultured thyroid follicles: only thiocyanate is a potent antithyroid agent, Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1992 Dec;127(6):520-5
* 2009, http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/endocrine.html#
* http://www.umm.edu/patiented/articles/what_causes_hypothyroidism_000038_2.htm
* CLINICAL SCIENCES, The occurrence of hypothyroidism after radio active iodine therapy for toxic diffuse goiters a well-described entity, http://jnm.snmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/19/2/180.pdf
* Diana Kohnle, Radioactive Iodine Treatment for Hyperthyroidism, http://www.thirdage.com/encyclopedia/radioactive-iodine-treatment-for-hyperthyroidism-radioiodine-treatment-for-hyperthyr
* http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Toxic_Goiter
* http://www.originaldrugs.com/health-library/hyperthyroidism.shtml, 2010
* AJ Giannini. The Biological Foundations of Clinical Psychiatry. New Hyde Park, NY. Medical Examination Publishing Co., 1986,pp.193-198. ISBN 0-87488-449-7
* James F. Balch, MD, 1989, Prescription for Nutritional Healing, p. 211
* http://www.medicinenet.com/hashimotos_thyroiditis/article.htm
* Daniela Cihakova MD, PhD, Hashimoto's Thyroiditis, http://autoimmune.pathology.jhmi.edu/diseases.cfm?systemID=3&DiseaseID=22
* http://ezinearticles.com/?Symptoms-and-Treatment-of-Hashimotos-Disease-(Thyroiditis)&id=224600).
* Peter Hauser et al., Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder in People with Generalized Resistance to Thyroid Hormone, http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/328/14/997?ck=nck
* The HealthCentralNetwork, Inc, Health Encyclopedia - Diseases and Conditions article, “Graves' Disease - Symptoms, Treatment and Prevention, .http://www.healthscout.com/ency/68/489/main.html
* http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/thyroid/overview.php
* S. Turkay, S.Kus, A. Gokalp, E. Baskin, A.Onal, EFFECTS OF PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITION ON CIRCULATING THYROID HORMONES, the Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey, http://indianpediatrics.net/feb1995/193.pdf
* http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec13/ch163b/html
* LB Marangell, TA Ketter, MS George, PJ Pazzaglia, AM Callahan, P Parekh, PJ Andreason, B Horwitz, P Herscovitch and RM Post, Inverse relationship of peripheral thyrotropin-stimulating hormone levels to brain activity in mood disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20892, USA., http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/154/2/224
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashimoto%27s_thyroiditis
* M. Bauer^{1, 2}, E. D. London^{2, 3, 4}, D. H. S. Silverman³, N. Rasgon⁵, J. Kirchheiner⁶, P. C. Whybrow², Pharmacopsychiatry 2003; 36: 215-221 DOI: 10.1055/s-2003-45133, Thyroid, Brain and Mood Modulation in Affective Disorder: Insights from Molecular Research and Functional Brain Imaging
*  Arem, Ridha, "The Thyroid Solution", Ballantine Books, New York, 1999.           
*  Fahrenfort JJ, Wilterdink AM, and van der Veen, EA,"Long-term residual complaints and psychosocial sequelae after remission of hyperthyroidism," in Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2000,Feb; 25(2): 201-211.
*  Elaine Moore, Graves' Disease, http://www.suite101.com/article.cmf/graves_disease/66568
* http://www.topherbalremedies.com/treatment/hashimotos-thyroiditis.php
* (Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2010 Sep 6. Rover MD, Noorden MS, Nieuwenhuis S, Wee NJ. Cognitive Psychology Unit, Leiden University; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition 
* Dr. G. L. Kanthan Br J Ophthalmol 2009;93:1210-1214
* Ray Sahelian, M.D., Beta Blocker medication side effects and benefits, http://www.raysahelian.com/betablocker.html
* http://www.drugs.com/sfx/propylthiouracil-side-effects.html
* Lorie Huston, 2009, Examining How Canine Nutrition Can Alter Genetic Expression in Dogs, http://www.suite101.com/content/nutrigenomics-linking-nutrition-to-genetics-a152747
* http://lanereiss.wordpress.com/the-science-of-nutrigenomics/definition-of-nutrigenomics
* John Cloud, 2010, Why Your DNA Isn't Your Destiny, Time.com
* Synthroid, http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/rxdrugprofiles/drugs/syn1421.shtml